Plate motion

…provide a fixed reference frame for plate motion. The discussion combines paleomagnetic records, island-chain ages and mantle-flow models, showing how plumes can drift with mantle circulation. Contrasting the Hawaiian and Louisville tracks helps distinguish hotspot motion from changes in plate direction and illustrates the limits of treating hotspots as stationary.

…cheaper receivers expand studies of plate motion, earthquake-related deformation and Earth rotation, with further applications in infrastructure and agriculture.